Grammar would be easier if every situation were dictated by hard and fast rules. But like our ever-evolving English language, grammar is always changing, and grammar, believe it or not, is considered something of an art form.

 

Some publishers have a defined style guide they abide by, such as the Chicago Manual of Style (CMoS), while some leave the grammar decisions to their editors. Since CMoS has been quoted by two editors and one publisher who I have worked with, I've decided to use it as my personal guide.

 

Included in this post:

To Comma or Not to Comma

 

Ellipses, Suspension points, Colons,

Semi-colons

 

En dashes, Hyphens, and Dashes

 

Capitalization

 

Huh? Grammar questions for fiction writers

Punctuating interrupted speech

Thoughts? Internal Dialog?

Faltering speech or confusion

Possession with multiple nouns

Headlines, Book Titles, Song Names, etc

Interview / Question and Answer Session

One-sided Phone Conversation with Dialog

Spelling out Words

 

 

To Comma or Not to Comma

 

Since commas are very common and very misused, I decided to start with them. They are meant to represent a slight pause.

 

Paired commas.

To set off dates, locations, and phrases—the comma is used in pairs. (Generally speaking, you ought to be able to read the sentence without the content inside the commas and still have the sentence make sense.)

 

On June 19, 1909, in Tacoma, Washington, there was a fire.

Jason, the owner of the coffee shop, sat and read the paper.

 

Serial Commas. CMoS recommends the comma before the conjunction.

 

Vee owned one hundred books, twenty pairs of shoes, and a pink Cadillac.

 

If the list is joined by conjunctions, commas are not necessary.

 

Vee owned eighty-nine books and ten pairs of shoes and a yellow Mustang.

 

If the list is complex (and include commas within the listed items), you can choose to separate the items with semicolons. (See the semi-colon section for those rules.)

 

That and which phrases. That, if used properly, (see that;which in Commonly Misused Words Portion of this handout) should not be set off by a comma. Which, if used properly, ought to have a comma prior to using it. This is because that is considered necessary (restrictive in grammar speak) to the sentence while the which may be discarded.

 

The version of the manuscript that I submitted was grammatically perfect.

 

My manuscript, which was grammatically perfect, got rejected.

 

Parenthetical Elements.

I call them side comments. They aren't necessary but give flavor to the writing.

 

My manuscript (to my delight) is under contract.

 

Introductory Phrases.

However, indeed, therefore, such as, and including should be offset with commas unless they are essential to the meaning. Also introductory phrases beginning with a verb or an adverb should be offset.

 

I like romantic comedies; however, I don't like chick-lit. (However is not necessary, so it is offset by a comma.)

 

He lied about his credentials and was therefore disqualified from the competition.

(Therefore is necessary, so it is not offset with a comma.)

 

Lying about his credentials, George was disqualified.

(Introductory phrases with verbs are offset with a comma.)

 

After lying about his credentials, George wept.

(Introductory phrases with adverbs or offset with a comma.)

 

Independent clauses linked with conjunctions.

Independent means they could stand on their own and read like a whole sentence. When there are two independent clauses within the same sentence that are linked with a conjunction, (and, but, or, etc.) the conjunction is usually preceded by a comma. Sometimes, independent clauses will be offset with semicolons, and, if they are short enough, the comma may be omitted.

 

The manuscript was finished, but was pocked with plot holes.

The author wrote in the morning, and she edited in the afternoon.

John wrote and Marie edited.

 

Restrictive phrases versus non restrictive phrases.

Basically decide whether the phrase is necessary to the meaning of the sentence, if it is, no commas.

 

The woman carrying the machine gun is my Aunt Mary.

(Whether it's important is subjective. It's up to you!)

 

My Aunt Mary, carrying her machine gun, greeted us at the door.

 

Dependent Clauses.

Dependent clauses preceding main clauses are followed by a comma.

 

If you want eat dessert, you must eat your spinach.

Before you submit your manuscript, run spellcheck.

 

Dependent clauses following the main clause are offset by commas if the main meaning of the sentence is not changed by the dependent clause. If it is changed by the dependent clause, omit the comma. (It can be hard to tell sometimes.)

 

My critique partner loved my story, but didn't like my coffee. (Meh, the coffee is not so important.)

 

My critique partner hated my story but sent it to her editor anyway.

(In this case, the dependent clause definitely changes the meaning.)

 

Two Conjunctions.

Two conjunctions next to each other such as, and if, that if, do not need to be separated by a comma.

 

 

Multiple Adjectives.

When multiple adjectives precede a noun, ask yourself if you can put "and" between them and still have them make sense. If so, a comma should be used.

 

The hairy, dirty, blood-thirsty zombie ate my finger.

 

Since you could say, The hairy and dirty and blood-thirsty zombie ate my finger, the commas belong between the adjectives.

 

 

Exclamations.

Exclamations should be followed with some kind of punctuation. Usually a comma, a period, or an exclamation point.

 

Oh, there you are.

Wow! That was a great performance.

 

 

 

Ellipses and Suspension Points

 

Both ellipses and suspension points are created by three spaced periods like this . . . see that? A space belongs an either side of the ellipsis or suspension points.

 

Most likely, we as fiction writers will use the suspension points more often to indicate interrupted speech.

 

"But . . . but . . . I thought we had an agreement."

 

Ellipses are used to indicate text has been omitted from a direct quote. It can be on omission of one word or several pages, but it's been taken out because it's not necessary for whatever point the author is trying to make.

 

"The civil war began . . . the North won."

 

 

Semicolons

One way to use a semicolon is to join two closely related independent clauses that aren't being joined by a conjunction. In truth, the two clauses could simply have periods, or a comma and a conjunction, but what fun would that be?

The author never cared for the semicolon; ellipsis were her favorite punctuation mark.

Vee Michaels is my favorite author; Sex-O-Matic is her best story.

If the words or phrases, however, thus, hence, indeed, accordingly, besides, therefore, that is, for example, namely, and sometimes then are used mid sentence and followed by an independent clause they often need semicolons. You may use a comma if the sentence is just as effective.

Laughter and love helps brain function; therefore reading chick-lit is highly recommended.

 

Semicolons can be used in front of a conjunction in lieu of a comma if you are trying to effect a stronger, more dramatic separation between clauses or when the second independent clause has internal punctuation.

The author insisted on rewriting the end; but the editor's disagreement, time constraints, and a case of the flu changed her mind.

 

Lastly, semicolons can be used as separators, instead of commas, for complex lists or lists in which the items themselves include other punctuation.

On doctor's orders I stopped exercising; ate more chocolate—milk chocolate with the highest fat content; read more romances (I figured the trashier the better); and watched reruns of my favorite movies.

 

 

 

Colons

A colon is used to illustrate or prove what had preceded it. It can also be used to introduce a series. The colon should convey the meaning, as follows. Note—just use one space after the colon.

The conference offered three courses on grammar: Getting Your Grammar On, The Misplaced Modifier, and The Dangling Participle.

The author had a dilemma: She could finish her blog on time and be late to the meeting. She could miss her blog deadline and be on time to the meeting. Or she take a bath and miss both.

 

Please bring the following to class: paper, pencil, ruler, and eraser.

 

 

A common writing error is to use the colon in lists when the objects listed after the colon are the subject of the verb preceding it. To merit the use of a colon, the words that introduce a series or list must themselves contain the elements of a complete sentence.

My neighbors had a: dog, cat, hamster, horse, and a snake. (This is incorrect.)

 

This sentence ought to read: My neighbors had a dog, cat, hamster, horse, and a snake.

 

Lowercase or capital letter after a colon?

 

When a colon is used within a sentence, as in the last example, the first word following the colon is lowercase unless it is a proper name as in the first example. When a colon introduces two or more sentences (as in the second example), or when it introduces a direct question, the first word following it is capitalized.

 

Colons to introduce speech or quotations

A colon can be used to introduce speech in dialogue, especially in an interview format.

Michael: The incident has already been reported.

Timothy: Then sir, all is lost!

 

 

Hyphens, En Dashes, and Em Dashes

 

Hyphens: Hyphens rules remind me of our spelling rules. There are rules, but there are so many exceptions that knowing the rules is practically useless.

 

A general rule: Hyphenate when the two or more modifiers do not make sense by themselves.

 

His ice-blue eyes.

His ice eyes doesn't make sense, so the hyphen is needed.

 

Another general rules: The first general rule only applies when the adjectives for the noun being modifying, come before the noun, not after.

 

His eyes were ice blue.

Modifiers, ice and blue come after the noun, eyes, so no hyphen.

 

Here is how different situations are handled:

 

Ages: a twelve-year-old

a 3-year-old girl (same rules if using a numeral)

a group of fifty- to sixty-year old writers (note the space after fifty-)

He was twenty years old.

She is 17 years of age (no hyphen since it comes after the noun modified)

 

Colors: sky-blue eyes (hyphenate before, not after a noun)

bluish-green gemstone

his eyes are sky blue (no hyphen since it comes after the noun modified)

the gemstone is bluish green

 

Compass Points:

northeast, southeast, northwest, southwest

west-northwest, east-southeast

an east-west street, a north-south river

 

Fractions:

a half hour, a half-hour run

one-half, two-thirds

one and three-quarters, a four-fifths majority

five twenty-third shares

 

Numbers:

Abbreviations:

the 10 k race, the 10 ft. deep well (no hyphen with abbreviation)

the ten-kilometer race (hyphen before noun)

the ten-foot-deep well

that's two inches high (after the pronoun here)

the two-inch-high trim (before the noun or pronoun here)

one and a half feet

 

Height:

he was six feet two inches tall (after noun)

a five-foot-ten linebacker (before noun)

twenty- to thirty-minutes of exercise (note space after the hyphen when showing a range)

 

Percent:

fifty percent, 50 percent, a ten percent raise (no hyphen with %)

 

Fractions:

on the tenth floor, a tenth-floor apartment

four-fifth-row tickets

a first-place ribbon, she place second to last

the second-largest city

 

Spelled:

twenty-one through ninety-nine are hyphenated

numbers over one hundred do not have hyphens unless they contain a number betweentwenty-one and ninety-nine

one hundred fifty,

two thousand, three hundred thirty-three; 2,333 (place commas where they would be if enumerated)

 

Time: at five thirty, the five-thirty flight

three o'clock, the three o'clock flight

the 9:00 a.m. traffic update

(Times with o'clock and a.m. or p.m. do not have hyphens even if preceding the noun.)

 

Note: a.m. and p.m. are lowercase with periods. A space should follow the time before a.m. or p.m.

 

Adverbs ending in ly:

a highly anticipated race,

the race was highly anticipated

(There is no hyphen before or after the noun with an adverb ending is ly.)

 

Adverb not ending in ly:

high-performing school, the school is high performing

too-hard acrobatic feat, the feat was too hard

(use hyphen before the verb, not after)

 

Showing quantity relationships:

More, most, less, least, and very do NOT require hyphens unless the phrase would be ambiguous without it.

 

a little understood child (could mean small and understandable, or misunderstood)

a little-understood child (only means the child in not often understood)

very well-behaved child

most lovely prose

most-skilled technicians (could be ambiguous)

least used utensils

 

Gerunds:

Gerunds follow the basic rules: hyphen before the noun, but not

after the noun.

 

she went mountain biking, the mountain-biking woman went

the marathon-running octogenarian, the eighty-five year old was a marathon runner.

 

Multiple Nouns in a Row:

Whether you hyphenate multiple nouns depends on whether the nouns being used represent a single function or dual functions. When the first noun modifies the second, there are no hyphens. If both nouns are equal in weight, then hyphenate.

 

student driver

business owner

resident-alien

city-state

 

For Three or More Word Phrases:

When three or more words in a row are modifying a noun, the general rule applies: hyphenate before the noun being modified but not after.

 

the over-the-top book, the book was over the top

an up-to-date memo, the memo was up to date

 

Clichés:

If the multiple word cliché precedes a noun it is modifying, then hyphenate it. Otherwise, the cliché must be looked up in Meriam Webster's Dictionary (CMoS's recommended dictionary).

 

Jack-of-all-trades is hyphenated while flash in the pan is not.

 

Compound Words:

Here's another sticky situation. Unfortunately there are many terms that use hyphens differently. Some have evolved into compound words(halfway, waterborne), while some require hyphens (half-asleep, mosquito-borne), while some require neither (half sister). Some follow the before and after noun rules, some don't.

 

Below is a list of terms to be aware of is below.

 

ache, all, book, borne, century, cross, e, elect, ever, ex, foster, free, full, general, grand, great-grand, half, house, in-law, like, near, od, old, on, percent, quasi, self, step, style, vice, web, and wide

 

Prefixes:

Most prefixes are simply added to the beginning of the words they are modifying with a hyphen. Of course there must be some detractors to this quick and easy rule so your best bet is to (you guessed it) consult your dictionary.

 

Wondering what words are considered prefixes? Here is a list:

 

ante, anti, bi, bio, co, counter, cyber, extra, fold, hyper, infra, inter, intra, macro, mega, meta, micro, mid, mini, multi, neo, non, over, post, pre, pro, proto, pseudo, re, semi, sub, super, supra, trans, ultra, un, under

 

 

Double Dashes:

Double dashes are used primarily to indicate an em dash if your software program doesn't do em dashes.

 

 

En Dashes:

An en dash is a dash longer than a dash but shorter than an em dash. Use an en dash with ex if it precedes an open compound. It is created by pressing option and dash simultaneously on a Mac keyboard, and control and dash simultaneously on a Windows keyboard. It holds a little less weight than an em dash, but a little more than a hyphen.

 

ex–district attorney

 

 

Em Dashes:

Em dashes indicate sudden breaks or changes in thought or interrupted speech.

 

"I was waiting in line—wait, why am I even talking to you?" (change of thought)

 

"Because I'm trying to save—"

"Save what? Not me." (interrupted speech)

 

If the change or break is within dialog, but not within the speech, em dashes belong outside the quotes.

 

"Yes save you. Did you"—his voice turned urgent—"hear anything I said?"

 

Em dashes are also used for emphasis and can take the place of parentheses.

 

My favorite dinner is (wait for it)—apple pie a la mode.

I can't believe I sold so many books at my book signing.

I sold—four hundred two copies!

 

 

Capitalization

 

The basic rules are to capitalize:

the beginnings of sentences

proper nouns

any word in a title except: the, a, an, and, but, for, of, or, nor, (unless they begin the title), and poor unworthy prepositions (unless the preposition is masquerading as another part of speech.

 

Turn It Up but Turn up the Heat

The Trumpet of the Swan and Once Upon a Time in America

 

 

Simple huh? Not so fast. Where we get into trouble is with what is considered a proper noun. Here's a few examples that might have you scratching your head:

the Boston Tea Party is capped, civil rights movement is not

the Stone Age is capped the nuclear age is not

the Victorian era, but the colonial period

a Thoroughbred horse, but a purebred dog

 

The bottom line is, if you are unsure, look it up in your handy-dandy dictionary.

 

Regarding capitalizing names such as mom and dad. The rule of thumb is to capitalize if you can substitute the person's name in place of mom, dad, aunt, etc. If not, the word should remain lowercase.

 

My mom's house try My Lillian's house, it doesn't work.

Mom's house try Lillian's house, it does work.

 

Huh? Grammar Questions for Fiction Writers

 

These are things I've found myself repeatedly looking up. I hope they help you.

 

Interrupted speech or sudden changes in thought:

Em dashes indicate sudden breaks or changes in thought or

interrupted speech.

 

"I was waiting in line—wait, why am I even talking to you?" (change of thought)

"Because I'm trying to save—" (interrupted speech)

"Save what? Not me."

 

If the change or break is within dialog, but not speech, em

dashes belong outside the quotes.

 

"Yes save you. Did you"—his voice turned urgent—"hear anything I said?"

 

Thoughts? Internal Dialog?

I couldn't find a reference for this in the CMoS, however, upon researching published books, it appears generally accepted that internal dialog be represented by italics. It is usually reserved for making a point and shouldn't be a regular contributor since it is often a form of telling rather than showing.

 

John's living room matched Marissa's mood, tarnished, yellow, and bare. My kind of guy, she thought, sarcastic even to herself.

 

Faltering speech or confusion:

Suspension points, indicated by a space then three periods in a

row with a space between each then another space after the last period is used to show confusion, stammering, or insecurity.

 

"I . . . I didn't know. I'm . . . well, I'm sorry."

 

Possession with multiple nouns:

When multiple nouns both possess the same item, only one possessive is needed.

 

Janice and Bill's house

Seattle and Tacoma's airport, Seatac

 

When the object possessed is individually owned, show possessives on all nouns.

 

Jerry's and Tom's paws

Janice's and Bill's birth certificates

 

 

Headlines, Book Titles, Song Names, etc.:

When they appear in a work of fiction, headlines, book titles, song names, etc., are capitalized and italicized.

 

John smiled when their song, It Had To Be You, came on the radio.

Sally threw The New Yorker magazine at John's head.

The article titled, Dead Man Found in Dishwasher, was found in Sally's purse.

 

Interview / Question and Answer Session:

Again, not a topic I found covered in the CMoS. So using several references (NPR, Rolling Stone Magazine, and Dear Abby), I concluded the following:

 

After citing whom the interview is with and the setting, you conduct the interview. It is assumed everything is spoken so no quotations are needed. Anything that is not a quote goes in parentheses.

 

Your and the interviewee's names should be in bold font.

 

You:  How do you do?

Interviewee:  Bored. Please no more grammar. (laugh)

You:  We're almost through.

 

One-sided Phone Conversation During Dialog:

Again, not found in CMoS. I am answering based on what I’ve seen done by various publishers.

 

One way I’ve seena one-sided conversation handled during dialog was with em dashes. Unless the person finished a complete sentence their words are run together. The em dashes represent the other person speaking.

 

"Hello? Vee Michaels here—uh huh—great—best seller, that's great—what—when?—Okay, I'll be there."

 

The other is with periods.

 

"Hello? Vee Michaels here. Uh huh. Great. Best seller, that's great. What? When? Okay, I'll be there."

 

 

Spelling out words:

If you are planning to have someone spell out a word (as if hiding its meaning from a child or dog) you would use the letters spelling rather than the letter itself. You should separate the letters with hyphens.

 

Here are the letters and their spelling:

A  a B  bee C  cee   D  dee  E  e F  ef G  gee

H  aitch I  I J  jay K  kay L  el M  em N  en O  o P  pee  Q  cue R  ar S  ess T  tee U  u V  vee W  double-u X  ex Y  wy or wye Z  Zee

 

"Should we go for some i-cee-e cee-ar-e-a-em?"